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Ancient Egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul and maintained that the soul would never fully leave the body as long as the body was intact. The body was mummified so that the soul could return after the “circle of necessity” (A 3000-year long journey before returning). After returning, the person would arise from the dead and live forever. Some historians maintain that the method of embalming was developed due to sanitary issues. Earlier the bodies were buried in the Nile valley which flooded frequently causing the unearthing of corpses.

Modern Day Practices

The modern method of embalming is defined as the disinfection and preservation of the dead human/animal body.

It is performed for given reasons:

• Disinfection: Many dangerous bacteria and virus have the ability to survive for long periods of time in dead tissues. Persons coming in direct contact with the un-embalmed body can be infected and there is the possibility of flies or other agents transferring pathogens to humans.
• Preservation and Restoration: Returning the body to a life-like appearance has received many critics, but the custom of viewing the body after death in a state of rest remains a practice of proven psychological worth.

The embalming process consists of four parts:

1. Arterial embalming, which involves the injection of embalming chemicals into the blood vessels. This chemical replaces the blood and other fluids in the body.
2. Cavity treatment/embalming refer to the removal of internal fluids inside body cavities via the use of an aspirator and trocar. A small incision is made just above the navel and a sharp tool is used to puncture the hollow organs to remove all the air.
3. Hypodermic embalming is a supplemental method which refers to the injection of embalming chemicals into tissue with a hypodermic needle, which is generally used where arterial fluid has not been successfully distributed during the main arterial embalming.
4. Surface embalming, another supplemental method, utilizes embalming chemicals to preserve and restore areas directly on the skin’s surface.

Modern day use of embalming is more common in scientific communities where preservation of the animal body is done for academics and collection purposes. We are more likely to see embalmed birds and insects in a museum which look amazingly lifelike.

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Pressure is defined as the force applied on a unit area; it is represented by the symbol P. The unit of pressure is Pascal or Newton per meter squared.

                                                          P= Force/Area

In this article we will try to understand pressure qualitatively and quantitatively. At the end of this read you should be able to appreciate cause of pressure, atmospheric pressure, types of pressure and variation of pressure in static fluid.

What causes pressure?

When a given amount of gas is put inside a closed container, it exerts pressure on the walls of the container. We know that gaseous molecules keep moving randomly hence they collide with the wall, causing change in momentum (p=mv) hence force (dp/dt) is exerted on the walls. For increasing the force we can increase the frequency of collision. It can be achieved using two mechanisms,

1. i) Increase the temperature of the gas which will increase the thermal energy of molecules. The particles will have more momentum (velocity increases) hence will exert more force on walls.
2. ii) Increasing density of the gas will result in more number of collisions i.e frequency of collision will increase so pressure will go up.

Pressure =f(Temperature, Density)                 (Macroscopically)

Calculating pressure

P = F/A

P = Mg/A = ρVg/A = ρAhg/A = ρgh

P= pressure

M=mass= Density (× Volume (V)

A= area

g= Acceleration due to gravity

We observe that pressure in a fluid at rest depends directly on density of fluid, height of fluid above the point under consideration and acceleration due to gravity.

Pressure increase with the depth but pressure on a given particle in a static fluid is same in all directions, this conclusion can easily be drawn from the fact that every particle in a state of static equilibrium or rest.

F1=F2=F3=F4

Atmospheric pressure

Earth is enveloped with a layer of air or atmosphere which extends up to around 100 kilometers. The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on things is called atmospheric pressure. Here we will treat air as a fluid. It is clear from the previous discussion that pressure on the surface of the earth will be maximum as compared to on mountains.

1Bar=101325 Pascals

The steep decrease in pressure with altitude is accounted for by the decrease in density of air as the altitude increases. This decrease in pressure is responsible for slow cooking of food on mountains. (Think!)

Absolute pressure and gauge pressure

Absolute pressure is measured taking the absolute zero or complete vacuum (0 bar) as reference.

When pressure is higher than the local atmospheric pressure usually 1 Bar then we use the word gauge pressure.

Absolute pressure = Local atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure

When pressure is lower than the local atmospheric pressure then we use the word vacuum pressure.

Absolute pressure = Local atmospheric pressure- vacuum pressure

Final comments:

Pressure at point D =ρgh₂

Pressure at point B= ρgh₁

Pressure at point C= ρgh₁

We observe that;

P_D> P_B and P_D> P_C

This can be attributed to the fact that h₁ is less than h₂, we must also note that it is only valid for points in same fluid (Density).

We also understand that for a given liquid the pressure at same horizontal level remains same or pressure only varies vertically. This fact will be used to solve almost all questions related to pressure calculation and manometry.

In next article we shall discuss numerical on manometry and types of pressure measuring devices.

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The world is witnessing the rise of a new currency system, which goes by the name of Bitcoin. It is destined to be the future currency of the world. Currently, 1 bitcoin is worth almost 8,50,000 rupees, which changes very frequently.

What is Bitcoin?

Bitcoin is a cryptocurrency, which roughly means that it is a digital currency which is generated and regulated by using encryption techniques. Moreover, it operates independently of any institution or government.

How can a currency be valid if it doesn’t require any certification or validation from the government?

This is more of a philosophical than a technical question. For understanding this, we must think about the origin of money or what was there before money. Indeed there was the barter system, now we have currency notes or paper with some value accorded to them. The role of government is to merely regulate and control this money. We can conclude that anything which has some value and more importantly the trust of its users is money. A currency loses all its importance once people stop trusting it. Let’s start trusting Bitcoin, a digital currency. Presently more than hundred thousand merchants deal in Bitcoins. The idea of decentralizing currency is very energetic and has the potential to revolutionise the way we think of money.

The rise of Bitcoin:

image source – the internet

In August 2008, the domain name Bitcoin.org was registered by Satoshi Nakamoto. The face behind this name is still a mystery. No one has ever seen or met Satoshi Nakamoto, though some have claimed to have known him. Nakamoto implemented the bitcoin software as open source code and released it in January 2009.

How does it work?

It is a peer-to-peer payment system. This means that no third party is involved in any manner. Since no third party is involved, transaction cost is zero and it also maintains the anonymity of the people involved. No authority is keeping track of the payments.

The network is designed in such a way that it hands all the transactions by itself.

How can you get Bitcoins?

1. Bitcoin Exchanges: These are special platforms where you can buy bitcoins in exchange for money. There may be many exchange platforms working in a country. In India, you can buy bitcoins on Zebpay and Unocoin in exchange for India Rupee.
2. Mining: There are people who solve intricate mathematical riddles to generate new bitcoins. Relatively few people have managed to decipher the codes needed to extract bitcoins from the 21 million locked inside the mathematical problems set by its creator, the software engineer whose true identity is unknown but who goes by the name Satoshi Nakamoto.
3. Payment: You can get bitcoins as payment from any other bitcoin user.

Advantages of Bitcoins:

image source – the internet

Control – Bitcoin users have full control of their transactions; it is impossible for merchants to force unwanted charges as can happen with other payment methods.

Privacy and security – Bitcoin payments can be made without personal information tied to the transaction. This offers strong protection against identity theft. Bitcoin users can also protect their money with backup and encryption.

Freedom of payment – It is possible to send and receive bitcoins anywhere in the world at any time. No bank holidays. No borders. No bureaucracy. Bitcoin allows its users to be in full control of their money.

Disadvantages:

image source – the internet

Anonymity – Even though every transaction in listed in a ledger which is open to all, only the Wallet IDs are visible, which makes it impossible to trace the transaction to the user. This feature has made bitcoin the currency of drug dealings and other illegal activities.

Insecure future – Like any other asset, the value of Bitcoins fluctuates with time, there is no certainty. An early investor in Snapchat has been quoted on the Web as saying that by 2030, the value could be as high as $500,000. Whereas  JP Morgan’s Jamie Dimon was seen quoting that it is a fraud which will soon blow up.

Volatile nature of currency – The value of bitcoin changes very drastically and frequently. These changes can be attributed to the fact that very less number of people use bitcoin hence small events have a great impact on its value. As its user base will grow the stability will be induced.

The pain of the government – The government has its own worries when it comes to bitcoins, though not very prominent right now. Governments are known to keep things under control and a commodity as currency is always under tight surveillance. Losing control over money is the worst nightmare for a government.

Experts also suspect that government agencies have started finding ways to suppress the rise of Bitcoins as it is a serious threat to the dominance of government and its control on the economy.

With all speculations and fancy dreams, Bitcoin promises of a decentralized global currency. At present we cannot say much, but philosophically a government free currency is a need in a free world.

References:

• bitcoin.org
• theguardian.com

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Individuals/ organizations that provide “greatest benefit on mankind” are bestowed by this honor.

How did it start!

Alfred Nobel read his own obituary in a French newspaper, the obituary was titled “ The merchant of death is dead.” The obituary was supposed to be of his brother Emil, who died while experimenting with nitroglycerin.

Alfred Nobel was shocked to see the way he was portrayed in his obituary hence was inspired to do something that would make his legacy immortal. In his Will, he appropriated 94 percent ($225 Million) of his assets to establish a prize that would be given to excellent people in the field of physics, chemistry, physiology, literature, and peace. In his Will, he also appointed authorities who would give away prizes. Indeed he was a genius.

The prize giving committees:

The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences: Physics, Chemistry and the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences.

Karolinska Institute: Physiology/Medicine

Swedish Academy: Literature

Norwegian committee:  Nobel Peace Prize

The nominations are made through nomination forms, which are given to Nobel laureates and famous people of respective fields. Multiple nominations are allowed but self-nomination is forbidden. The Nobel committee shortlists on the basis of majority and other factors. The nominations and other documents are kept sealed and secret for next 50 years.

Interesting facts about Nobel prize:

1. Mahatma Gandhi never got Nobel Peace Prize but was nominated 5 times. He was very close to winning the Nobel Peace prize but was assassinated in January 1948.

In 1948, following Gandhi’s death, the Nobel Committee declined to award prize on the ground that “there was no suitable living candidate” that year.

Moreover, Nobel prize are not given posthumously.

2. Alfred Nobel in his Will advocated that the prizes be given to people who contributed the preceding year. In 1926, Nobel prize in medicine went to Johannes Finger for discovering that roundworms caused cancer (which they don’t).

Later it was decided to give the prize to people whose work have withstood the test of time.

The Nobel committee has been accused of Eurocentrism in past.

3. It’s rare but people have rejected Nobel prize, Le Duc Tho rejected Nobel Peace prize for helping in the negotiation that ended Vietnam war and led to Paris Accord. He argued that there was no real peace in Vietnam.

4. Barack Obama getting a Nobel Peace prize was seen as a premature and less thoughtful step by Nobel committee, the justifications were also childish. Anyways Obama joined the league of Dalai Lama and Mother Teresa.

Surprisingly enough, Adolf Hitler was nominated for the Nobel Peace .

5. The Curies have a family like relationship with Nobel prizes as they have received 5 Nobel prizes till date.

Apart from all the twisted incidents Nobel prize are always the dream of all scientists. Only the works which have a tremendous impact on human life directly or indirectly are capable of fetching a Nobel prize. Let’s hope that Nobel prizes retain their purity and status.

“Let the benefactors of mankind get the finest gifts mankind can offer, a Nobel”

 

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Mathematics is the secret to understanding the world.

Mathematics, the word itself is a source of stress for many people. A Spanish study suggests that 60 percent students suffer from math anxiety. Is math really so bad or it’s our approach that should be mended?

The latter one is correct.

Math is the hidden tool to understand the world and great academicians find beauty in maths. 

Before going towards mathematics, let us discuss understanding and why is it important to understand?

Understanding has to do with the ability to know the behaviour of stuff around us. Curiosity and zeal to understand are the bed rock to the progress of human race. The process of understanding starts with the search for repetitions, patterns and similarities. This is where mathematics kicks in.

 Disclaimer: As you glide through this article, you will fall in love with mathematics.

Mathematics is the ability to express the world around us in terms of numbers and equations. Without mathematics, this world will stop making sense. Trust me, a human brain is well acquainted with maths and constantly does complex mathematics without you realising it. For instance, when you try to cross a road, your brains takes various numbers like the speed of vehicles on road, your speed, the width of road e.t.c  and tells you the right time to cross the road.

Isn’t it fascinating?

General misconception that maths is all about addition, subtraction, algebra and terrible equations, is the prime cause of maths anxiety.  I will try to emphasise that “maths is the prime tool to understand the world” 

“Mathematics is the science of identifying patterns which perpetuate better understanding.”

Let us begin with simple things:

“All things of beauty have a mathematical form.”

Ever heard of Golden ratio, (1.618:1) it was given by Leonardo da Vinci. He found a repetitive pattern in all physical things that appeal to our eyes. It appears that most of the winners of beauty pageants exhibit golden ratio in their faces. This ratio is also called the universal ratio of balance.

Next time you see something just perfect in all proportions, remember golden ratio.

In the third phase, we shall try to link mathematics to other fields of study.

Everything in this world can be associated with a value, a number that is special to a given physical phenomenon. Even light that we see has wave-length (400- 700 nm) attached to it. A set of variables is attached with all events and those variables have value, for instance, the variables governing economy of a country. Experts use different functions or equations to predict the future market.

Mathematics gives us the power to quantitatively analyse a situation, thereby giving a better understanding. All scholarly subjects will lose their essence once detached from maths.

Let’s analyse the importance of mathematics in the world of computer science:

As stated, maths deals with patterns and the human brain have the ability to decode patterns. Likewise, computers work on algorithms or steps. To design an algorithm the algorithm the programmer has to identify the pattern then convey it to the computer. Essentially all programmers are good at mathematics.

Nature frequently amazes us with its magnificent beauty. Even in the weirdest and confusing events, nature exhibits patterns, which are now being used to predict the weather of a place. While progressing towards the conclusion I would like to remind you that mathematics is the study of patterns.  

 “ The things of beauty are those that we understand and what we understand, essentially has a pattern”

I claim that all that exists, exhibits patterns, hence has a mathematical form, if we somehow manage to decode the pattern of all events simultaneously then we will be able to predict the future. Maths is everywhere, embrace it as one thing is sure you can’t fake maths.

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